Chronic mycotoxicosis, such as HCC results from a high dosage of mycotoxins' contamination. Such pathogenesis generally involves the formation of DNA adducts, regulation of DNA methylation, and alteration of gene expression Dai et al. Interestingly, gut microbiota perturbation is found to be one of the factors influencing mycotoxin-induced HCC and its association is described in Figure 1. The development of HCC in mice induced by a combination of diethylnitrosamine DEN and hepatotoxin carbon tetrachloride CCl4 , a model that features several characteristics of chronically injured livers in which human HCC mostly arises, is prevented via gut sterilization.
The same study also showed that mice that were grown in specific GF conditions demonstrated fewer and smaller tumors as compared with those grown under specific pathogen free SPF conditions Dapito et al. In a toxic model of hepatocarcinogenesis, Yu L. Treatment of rats with antibiotic targeting gram-negative organisms polymyxin B and neomycin markedly reduced the size and number of HCC nodules after injection of DEN, which induces HCC.
Figure 1. The involvement of gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of HCC. Ingestion of mycotoxin-contaminated foods induces HCC, which eventually leads to the intestinal dysbiosis.
The perturbation of microbial balance in the intestine causes a decrease of beneficial gut bacteria. Without the protection from beneficial bacteria, the growth of pathogens will expand rapidly and produce high level of LPS. Restoration of gut microbiota balance via intake of probiotics can alleviate the tumorigenic effects in HCC.
Some specific bacterial species are also found to be correlated with HCC development. Findings from both animal and human studies demonstrated that liver cirrhosis and HCC stimulate an intestinal dysbiosis as well as a significant increase population of the E.
Besides, hepatocarcinogenesis is found to be related to the increased lipopolysaccharides LPS levels which are commonly produced by pathogens in several studies Zhang et al. Probiotics are known for their roles in gut health and microbiota restoration.
In addition, many strains of probiotics possess the ability to reduce the level of mycotoxins, particularly via binding. A human study by El-Nezami et al. Similar finding was found by Mohd Redzwan et al. Probiotic supplement reduces the biologically available effective toxic dose of mycotoxin coupled with its gut microbiota normalization ability, offer an effective dietary approach to decrease the risk of liver cancer.
As shown in these studies, the restoration of gut microbiota equilibrium offers protection and treatment effects in HCC whereas the occurrence of HCC is linked to the higher abundance of pathogens as illustrated in Figure 1.
The linkage of microbiota and HCC is undeniably important to understand the mechanism involved in the pathogenesis of HCC. This concise review has attempted to draw together the keyworks to highlight the crucial interaction between mycotoxins, the gut, and the gut microbiota in human and animal health. The mycotoxins and gut microbiota studies have revealed meaningful interactions.
The uptake of mycotoxin and subsequent tissue distribution are governed by GI tract absorption, and the presence of microbiota at the GI tract can affect the intestinal barrier causing different maximal or limited bioavailability of these fungal compounds. The gut microbiota can vary within the same species, thus different reactions toward mycotoxin can be observed as discussed in this review article.
In addition, mycotoxins disrupt the gut microbiota balance, and thereby dysregulate intestinal functions and impair local immune response, which may eventually result in systemic toxicity that leads to chronic mycotoxicosis, HCC. The severity of HCC condition can be positively governed by restoration of gut microbiota balance and gut health via probiotics administration.
Probiotic which generally helps restore the natural harmony of gut microbiota coupled with its mycotoxins reducing ability could increase its health-promoting value. W-P-PL wrote the draft.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abassi, H. The mycotoxin zearalenone enhances cell proliferation, colony formation and promotes cell migration in the human colon carcinoma cell line HCT Adhikari, M.
T-2 mycotoxin: toxicological effects and decontamination strategies. Oncotarget 8, — Akinrinmade, F. Changes in serum cytokine levels, hepatic and intestinal morphology in aflatoxin B1-induced injury: modulatory roles of melatonin and flavonoid-rich fractions from Chromolena odorata. Mycotoxin Res. Alassane-Kpembi, I. Niewold Wageningen: Academic Publishers , 89— Alizadeh, A. Deoxynivalenol impairs weight gain and affects markers of gut health after low-dose, short-term exposure of growing pigs.
Toxins 7, — Anater, A. Mycotoxins and their consequences in aquaculture: a review. Aquaculture , 1— Anderson, G. Gut permeability and microbiota in Parkinson's disease: role of depression, tryptophan catabolites, oxidative and nitrosative stress and melatonergic pathways. Angius, F. Patulin and ochratoxin a co-occurrence and their bioaccessibility in processed cereal-based foods: a contribution for Portuguese children risk assessment.
Food Chem. Ates, E. Determination of Fusarium mycotoxins in wheat, maize and animal feed using on-line clean-up with high resolution mass spectrometry. Food Addit. Awuor, A. Evaluation of the efficacy, acceptability and palatability of calcium montmorillonite clay used to reduce aflatoxin B1 dietary exposure in a crossover study in Kenya. Baines, D. Toxins 5, — Battilani, P.
Foreword: mycotoxins in a changing world. World Mycot. The role of diet on gut microbiota composition. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Boini, K. Sphingolipids in obesity and related complications. Brazil, J. The role of polymorphonuclear leukocyte trafficking in the perpetuation of inflammation during inflammatory bowel disease. Bowel Dis. Bui-Klimke, T. Ochratoxin A and human health risk: a review of the evidence. Food Sci. Burel, C.
Effect of low dose of fumonisins on pig health: immune status, intestinal microbiota and sensitivity to Salmonella. Cani, P. Talking microbes: when gut bacteria interact with diet and host organs. Food Res. Capaldo, C. Epithelial adhesive junctions. FPrime Rep.
Ceccaroli, C. Molecular fingerprints of environmental carcinogens in human cancer. Health 33, — Celi, P. Gastrointestinal functionality in animal nutrition and health: new opportunities for sustainable animal production. Feed Sci. Chen, X. Interactive effects of dietary protein concentration and aflatoxin B1 on performance, nutrient digestibility, and gut health in broiler chicks.
Chilaka, C. The status of Fusarium mycotoxins in Sub-Saharan Africa: a review of emerging trends and post-harvest mitigation strategies towards food control. Toxins Claus, S. The gut microbiota: a major player in the toxicity of environmental pollutants? Npj Biofilms Microbiomes Collins, S. A role for the gut microbiota in IBS. Constantinescu, C. Constantinescu, R. Arsenescu, V. Arsenescu Cham: Springer , — Dai, Y.
Aflatoxin B1-induced epigenetic alterations: an overview. Dapito, D. Promotion of hepatocellular carcinoma by the intestinal microbiota and TLR4. Cancer Cell 21, — Mycotoxins and their effects on human and animal health. Food Control 36, — Dobolyi, C.
Occurrence of aflatoxin producing Aspergillus flavus isolates in maize kernel in Hungary. Acta Alimentaria 42, — Dominguez-Bello, M. Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns.
Donaldson, G. Gut biogeography of the bacterial microbiota. Duncan, S. The role of pH in determining the species composition of the human colonic microbiota.
El-Nezami, H. Probiotic supplementation reduces a biomarker for increased risk of liver cancer in young men from Southern China. Eriksen, G. Transformation of trichothecenes in ileal digesta and faeces from pigs. Etzel, R. Reducing malnutrition: time to consider potential links between stunting and mycotoxin exposure? Pediatrics , 4—6. Fahmy, N. Ochratoxin A is not detectable in renal and testicular tumours. FAO Economic Analysis of Supply and Demand for Food up to Fink, J.
Jansen and N. Wright Cham: Springer , 11— Freire, F. Ramawat Cham: Springer , — Gajecka, M. The expression of type-1 and type-2 nitric oxide synthase in selected tissues of the gastrointestinal tract during mixed mycotoxicosis. Risk assessment for changes in the metabolic profile and body weights of pre-pubertal gilts during long-term monotonic exposure to low doses of zearalenone ZEN.
Activity of Zearalenone in the Porcine Intestinal Tract. Molecules Galarza-Seeber, R. Leaky gut and mycotoxins: Aflatoxin B1 does not increase gut permeability in broiler chickens. Gargano, L. Microbial origins of chronic diseases. Public Health 35, 65— Gelderblom, W. Fumonisins—novel mycotoxins with cancer-promoting activity produced by Fusarium moniliforme. Goodrich, J. Genetic determinants of the gut microbiome in UK twins.
Cell Host Microbe 19, — Cross-species comparisons of host genetic associations with the microbiome. Science , — Gratz, S. Masked trichothecene and zearalenone mycotoxins withstand digestion and absorption in the upper GI tract but are efficiently hydrolyzed by human gut microbiota in vitro.
Grenier, B. Modulation of intestinal functions following mycotoxin ingestion: meta-analysis of published experiments in animals. Guan, S. Transformation of trichothecene mycotoxins by microorganisms from fish digesta. Aquaculture , — Guarner, F. Gut flora in health and disease. Lancet , — Guo, M.
Combination of metagenomics and culture-based methods to study the interaction between ochratoxin a and gut microbiota. Hahn, I. Hand, T. Linking the microbiota, chronic disease, and the immune system.
Trends Endocrinol. Hathout, A. Biological detoxification of mycotoxins: a review. He, P. Microbial transformation of deoxynivalenol vomitoxin.
Hoffmann, C. Archaea and fungi of the human gut microbiome: correlations with diet and bacterial residents. Holmes, E. Understanding the role of gut microbiome—host metabolic signal disruption in health and disease. Trends Microbiol. Hossein, A. Aflatoxins in poultry nutrition. Hueza, I.
Zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin, is an immunotoxic compound. Toxins 6, — Jahanian, E. Mycotoxin-induced toxicity; an updated mini-review on the current concepts.
Persa 2:e Google Scholar. Jaladanki, R. Granger and J. Jandhyala, S. Role of the normal gut microbiota. World J. Johansson, M. Immunological aspects of intestinal mucus and mucins. Kadota, T. Comparative study of deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, and acetyldeoxynivalenol on intestinal transport and IL-8 secretion in the human cell line Caco Kamada, N. P unraveling the functional role of dysbiosis in Crohn's disease. Role of the gut microbiota in immunity and inflammatory disease.
Karl, J. Changes in intestinal microbiota composition and metabolism coincide with increased intestinal permeability in young adults under prolonged physiologic stress.
Liver Physiol. Kelly, J. Breaking down the barriers: the gut microbiome, intestinal permeability and stress-related psychiatric disorders.
Kew, M. Aflatoxins as a cause of hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Dis. Khazaeli, P. Evaluation of aflatoxin contamination in raw and roasted nuts in consumed Kerman and effect of roasting, packaging and storage conditions. Life Sci. Kolf-Clauw, M. The emerging mycotoxin, enniatin B1, down-modulates the gastrointestinal toxicity of T-2 toxin in vitro on intestinal epithelial cells and ex vivo on intestinal explants. Kollarczik, B. In vitro transformation of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone by the normal gut microflora of pigs.
Toxins 2, — Korem, T. Growth dynamics of gut microbiota in health and disease inferred from single metagenomic samples. Ochratoxin A: molecular interactions, mechanisms of toxicity and prevention at the molecular level. Kotowicz, N. The importance of Fusarium fungi in wheat cultivation—pathogenicity and mycotoxins production: a review. Plant Sci. Kubena, L. Cecal volatile fatty acids and broiler chick susceptibility to Salmonella typhimurium colonization as affected by aflatoxins and T-2 toxin.
Kuczynski, J. Experimental and analytical tools for studying the human microbiome. Genetics 13, 47— Kumar, P. Aflatoxins: a global concern for food safety, human health and their management. Ladeira, C. Engaging one health for non-communicable diseases in Africa: perspective for mycotoxins. Public Health Lee, W. Gut microbiota-generated metabolites in animal health and disease.
Lerda, D. Fumonisins in foods from Cordoba Argentina , presence: mini review. Open Access Lerner, A. Microbes and viruses are bugging the gut in celiac disease.
Lessard, M. Impact of deoxynivalenol DON contaminated feed on intestinal integrity and immune response in swine. Lewczuk, B. Histological structure of duodenum in gilts receiving low doses of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in feed. Lewis, C. Increased cytotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins toward human cell lines in vitro via enhanced cytochrome p expression using the MTT bioassay.
Mycopathologia , 97— Li, J. Probiotics modulated gut microbiota suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma growth in mice. Liao, C. Determination of zearalenone in cereals by high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Food Drug Anal. Liuzzi, V. Transcriptional analysis of Acinetobacter sp. Logrieco, A. Epidemiology of toxigenic fungi and their associated mycotoxins for some Mediterranean crops. Plant Pathol. Lun, A. Disappearance of deoxynivalenol from digesta progressing along the chicken's gastrointestinal tract after intubation with feed containing contaminated corn.
Lv, G. The gut microbiota, tumorigenesis, and liver diseases. Engineering 3, — Manafi, M. Effect of ochratoxin A on coccidiosis-challenged broiler chicks. World Mycotoxin J. Maresca, M. From the gut to the brain: journey and pathophysiological effects of the food-associated trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol.
Marin, D. Food contaminant zearalenone and its metabolites affect cytokine synthesis and intestinal epithelial integrity of porcine cells. Comparative effect of ochratoxin A on inflammation and oxidative stress parameters in gut and kidney of piglets.
Masching, S. Gastrointestinal degradation of fumonisin B1 by carboxylesterase fumD prevents fumonisin induced alteration of sphingolipid metabolism in turkey and swine. McLaughlin, J. Ochratoxin A increases permeability through tight junctions by removal of specific claudin isoforms.
Cell Physiol. Climate change and mycotoxigenic fungi: impacts on mycotoxin production. Mezzelani, A. Ochratoxin A as possible factor trigging autism and its male prevalence via epigenetic mechanism. Real and perceived risks for mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds: challenges for food safety control.
Minervini, F. Toxic mechanisms induced by fumonisin B1 mycotoxin on human intestinal cell line. Mohd-Redzwan, S. A mini review on aflatoxin exposure in Malaysia: past, present and future.
Mohd Redzwan, S. Effect of supplementation of fermented milk drink containing probiotic Lactobacillus casei Shirota on the concentrations of aflatoxin biomarkers among employees of Universiti Putra Malaysia: a randomised, double-blind, cross-over, placebo-controlled study. Monson, M. Modulation of the spleen transcriptome in domestic turkey Meleagris gallopavo in response to aflatoxin B1 and probiotics. Immunogenetics 67, — Mosca, A. Gut microbiota diversity and human diseases: should we reintroduce key predators in our ecosystem?
Muhammad, I. Curcumin successfully inhibited the computationally identified CYP2A6 enzyme-mediated bioactivation of aflatoxin B1 in arbor acres broiler. Nathanail, A. Metabolism of the Fusarium mycotoxins T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in wheat.
Ortiz, C. Genetic variability and geographical distribution of mycotoxigenic Fusarium verticillioides strains isolated from maize fields in Texas. Osselaere, A. Deoxynivalenol impairs hepatic and intestinal gene expression of selected oxidative stress, tight junction and inflammation proteins in broiler chickens, but addition of an adsorbing agent shifts the effects to the distal parts of the small intestine.
Ouethrani, M. Metabolic fate of ochratoxin A as a coffee contaminant in a dynamic simulator of the human colon. Pandya, J. Mycotoxin: a devil of human, animal and crop health. Payros, D. The food contaminant deoxynivalenol exacerbates the genotoxicity of gut microbiota. MBio 8:e Peng, X. Protective roles of sodium selenite against aflatoxin B1-induced apoptosis of jejunum in broilers.
Public Health 11, — Peraica, M. CrossRef Full Text. Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans. World Health Organ. Pinton, P. Effect of deoxynivalenol and other Type B trichothecenes on the intestine: a review. Piotrowska, M. The effect of experimental fusarium mycotoxicosis on microbiota diversity in porcine ascending colon contents.
Pitt, J. A concise history of mycotoxin research. Qian, G. Aflatoxin B1 modulates the expression of phenotypic markers and cytokines by splenic lymphocytes of male F rats. Qu, D. Efficacy of mixed adsorbent in ameliorating ochratoxicosis in broilers fed ochratoxin a contaminated diets. Ray, D. Recent patterns of crop yield growth and stagnation. Romero, A. Mycotoxins modify the barrier function of Caco-2 cells through differential gene expression of specific claudin isoforms: protective effect of illite mineral clay.
Toxicology , 21— European association of urology guidelines on upper urinary tract urothelial cell carcinoma: update. Rowland, I. Gut microbiota functions: metabolism of nutrients and other food components.
Interactions of the gut microflora and the host in toxicology. Rudi, K. The composition of the gut microbiota throughout life, with an emphasis on early life. Health Dis. Russo, P. Metabolites of microbial origin with an impact on health: ochratoxin A and biogenic amines. Saint-Cyr, M. Evaluation of an oral subchronic exposure of deoxynivalenol on the composition of human gut microbiota in a model of human microbiota-associated rats. Sam, Q. The fungal mycobiome and its interaction with gut bacteria in the host.
Scarpellini, E. The human gut microbiota and virome: potential therapeutic implications. Schmeits, P. DON shares a similar mode of action as the ribotoxic stress inducer anisomycin while TBTO shares ER stress patterns with the ER stress inducer thapsigargin based on comparative gene expression profiling in Jurkat T cells.
Sekirov, I. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Shimizu, K. Altered gut flora are associated with septic complications and death in critically ill patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Intestinal microbiota in functional bowel disorders: a Rome foundation report. Gut 62, — Solcan, C.
Effect of ochratoxin A on the intestinal mucosa and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues in broiler chickens. Acta Vet. Sommer, F. The gut microbiota—masters of host development and physiology. Speight, N. Sun, L. Prevention of aflatoxin B1 hepatoxicity by dietary selenium is associated with inhibition of cytochrome P isozymes and up-regulation of 6 selenoprotein genes in chick liver.
Taranu, I. Exposure to zearalenone mycotoxin alters in vitro porcine intestinal epithelial cells by differential gene expression. Tenk, I. The effect of pure Fusarium toxins T-2, F-2, DAS on the microflora of the gut and on plasma glucocorticoid levels in rat and swine.
A, Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Infektionskrankheiten und Parasitologie , — Aflatoxicosis is the state acute poisoning of aflatoxins, which can cause liver damages. Moreover, they can damage DNA and can cause cancers such as liver cancers. Not only that, they can cause immune suppression as well. In simple words, they are the toxic substances produced by molds.
These moulds grow on numerous food such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts, spices, etc. Among them, aflatoxins are the most poisonous and carcinogenic. Moreover, mycotoxins cause a variety of negative health effects on humans and other animals. Most commonly, they cause acute poisoning and immune deficiencies.
Not only that, they can induce cancers as well. Other than health problems, mycotoxins can cause problems with food security and nutrition.
The severity of mycotoxin poisoning and symptoms may differ among people since they depend on several factors such as the type of mycotoxin, the amount and duration of the exposure, age, health, sex of the exposed individual, vitamin deficiency, alcohol abuse, and infectious disease status, etc. Aflatoxin is a mycotoxin produced by an Aspergillus species. Mycotoxin is a secondary metabolite of a mould that is a toxic compound.
So, this is the key difference between aflatoxin and mycotoxin. Therefore, we can consider this also as a difference between aflatoxin and mycotoxin. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of certain moulds that are toxic compounds.
Mycotoxin production is an alternative way of causing diseases by fungi. There are different types of mycotoxins, among them, aflatoxins are the most poisonous type of mycotoxins produced only by Aspergillus species. Thus, this is the key difference between aflatoxin and mycotoxin. Bennett, J W, and M Klich. Samanthi Udayangani holds a B.
Degree in Plant Science, M. Your email address will not be published. Figure Aflatoxin B1.
0コメント